Rivers and Streams
(Updated September 9, 2024)
Rivers have long been at the core of great civilizations, from Mesopotamia along the Tigris and Euphrates to Egypt along the Nile, the Harappan in the Indus River Valley to the early Chinese kingdoms along the Yellow River. Rome was established along the Tiber, London on the Thames, Bangkok on the Chao Phraya, and New Orleans on the Mississippi. The Bible describes a river running out of Eden, splitting into four - the Pishon, the Gihon, the Hiddekel, and the Euphrates (Genesis 2:10-14).
The Colorado River flows through Austin, TX, where it serves as an active area for water-sports, including kayaking, canoeing, stand up paddling, and fishing.
Like many cities, Austin is built along the banks of a river. Rivers provide water for agriculture, for human consumption and sanitation, and for the production of electricity. Rivers provide natural pathways for the movement of goods and peoples. Rivers sit at the center of human life and activity.
What is a River?
A RIVER is the largest type of STREAM (the general term for a natural moving body of water flowing in a single direction). Rivers normally empty into a larger body of water like a sea or ocean, though they may empty into other rivers. Rivers are always in motion. Precipitation patterns can impact the flow rate of rivers, sudden storms may trigger floods, erosional forces can change the shape and course of rivers. This variability gives rivers a variety of habitats within and along their banks, providing life to a many different types of plants and animals. To understand a river, it is useful to imagine it as a whole unit - from its geographic beginning to its end. The HEADWATER is the beginning of a river. Headwaters can spring forth from glaciers or lakes, from mountain snowmelt or areas of regular rainfall, from underwater springs or groundwater seeps. However they emerge, the water begins moving in a common direction (downhill), and the initial small trickles erode tiny grooves or channels in the soil called RILLS or RIVULETS. As these initial small flows of water start to come together, they merge to form small moving bodies called BROOKS or CREEKS (sometimes pronounced “CRICKS” depending upon where you are from). 
These small creeks, originating in the farm fields, are an example of headwaters. Note the way they come together to form a larger creek.
The headwaters of a river are often characterized by relatively cold, clear and well-oxygenated water, that is swift, carries little sediment, and has fewer suspended nutrients. Near the mouth of a river, the waters are warmer, often filled with sediment and DETRITUS (decaying organic matter), and are relatively warm. The mouth generally has slower moving water than the headwaters, is murky and nutrient rich. The warmer, nutrient-rich waters support more algal growth. Fish like trout and salmon, and amphibians like salamanders often prefer the clear cool waters at the head of a river, while bottom-feeders like carp and catfish prefer the sediment-rich waters near the mouth.
Near the headwaters of a river in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. Note how rapidly the cold water is moving as it races down the mountain. When it reaches flatter land, the river will widen and slow.
In Austin, we have several creeks with developed trail systems to explore, including Shoal Creek, Bull Creek, and Barton Creek. All three empty into the Colorado River. A brook or creek that feeds into a larger stream or river is referred to as a TRIBUTARY. Rivers can also be tributaries of even larger rivers.
When a stream or river nears its end, its water is often flowing relatively slowly, allowing suspended sediments such as SILT (small particles of inorganic matter generally smaller than sand and larger than clay) to settle out along the bottom of the stream or river bed. If the river or stream overflows its banks, as during a flood, it deposits ALLUVIUM, soil, rocks and stones, and other sediments left above the normal water line. The river ends at its MOUTH, where it flows either into another river, or into a lake or the sea. If a stream ends on land (such as a mountain stream that only flows with the melting of the snows or with floods), rather than into a river or the sea, its often slows and spreads out as the inclination of the ground flattens out. This will leave an ALLUVIAL FAN, a fan-shaped pattern of sediments and other items dropped out along the ground. A DELTA is similar to an alluvial fan, but is formed where the river flows into the lake, sea or ocean, and the sudden slowing of the water allows the sediment to fall out as the water spreads, leaving a fan-shaped deposit plain. 
Here is an example of a delta emptying onto the Gulf of Mexico. Note the dark brown coloration - this is the silt and detritus carried by the river into the Gulf.
If a river empties into a semi-enclosed area of the Ocean or a salt-water sea, the area where the fresh and salt water meet and mix is called an ESTUARY. Estuaries are often very important nurseries for marine organisms, but they are also very susceptible to environmental changes and pollution.
The geographic area of land that feeds a single river is called a WATERSHED. Rain, snowmelt, or groundwater seeps within a particular watershed feed into the same set of creeks and brooks, and ultimately into the same rivers. You can explore watersheds in the United States at the USGS (click in to see how smaller watersheds combine into larger units). In the United States, beyond the individual watersheds, we see that rivers in the lower 48 states ultimately flow either westward, or east and south. The Rocky Mountains form a roughly north-south line through the United States, called the CONTINENTAL DIVIDE. This line marks the delineation between waters that flow west toward the Pacific Ocean, and those that flow south or east toward the Gulf of Mexico or the Atlantic Ocean. All the rivers in Texas are on the east side of the Continental Divide. 
A sign marking the Continental Divide in Colorado.
The Colorado River (the Texas Colorado, not its more famous western cousin) runs through the middle of Austin, where it is called Lady Bird Lake (note that most of our "lakes" in Central Texas are actually segments of the Colorado River between dams). The Colorado is the longest river completely in Texas, stretching some 600 miles from Lubbock to the Gulf of Mexico southwest of Houston. If you compare a map of Texas rivers with a map of downtown Austin, you will see that many of the north-south streets are named after the major Texas rivers. You will also see downtown that the city is flanked by two creeks flowing into the Colorado River: Shoal Creek on the west side of town, and Waller Creek on the east side of town.
Further upstream, the Colorado River has several reservoirs and "lakes" created by dams, together called the Highland Lakes. These include, in order, Lake Buchanan, Inks Lake, Lake LBJ and Lake Marble Falls. Between Marble Falls and Austin come Lake Travis and Lake Austin. You can download maps of the Highland Lakes at the LCRA website. Each new Pathfinder year, one of the SAIL Club's first service project is taking part in the annual Lake Travis Cleanup, just one of many ways to help keep our rivers clean. So what might the water look like as you float down a river here in Texas? Well, early on, you may see some RIFFLES in the stream; areas of relatively shallow water that flows rapidly in and among the rocks. If the water is a little deeper, and a little more turbulent, these disruptive flows are called RAPIDS, fast moving and turbulent areas of water often with small falls and other minor obstacles. Kayakers, canoers and rafters often enjoy passing over various stretches of fast-moving water.
Fast moving areas of water with relatively strong currents and often numerous obstacles are called WHITEWATER, and the foaming waters give a good reason for this name. For recreational users of these waters, a system of descriptions has been devised, which categorizes the various types of rapids or whitewater to let users know how difficult and dangerous a certain stretch of river may be. There are five categories of navigable whitewater (some include a sixth category, which is best avoided even by experts). Down at the lower end, Category I rapids are little more than riffles, with few if any major rocks or obstacles. At the other end, Category 5 rapids are often long, tumultuous, and have numerous obstacles and potential dangers. You can find more information about the classification system at American Whitewater. 
Here is a kayaker braving the white water on Barton Creek (yes, this is Barton Creek, after quite a bit of flooding back in early 2010).
As rivers flow, they scour channels into the earth. Fast-moving rivers and streams will often cut V-shaped channels, as they slice into the earth. Slow-moving rivers may over time leave flatter valleys as they broaden out and drop more sediment along their edges. Rivers rarely flow in a straight line. Rather, they wind back and forth like a snake across the land.
As rivers turn, the water on the outside of a bend has a higher velocity than the water at the inside of a bend. At first, this may seem odd - how can the water be going two different speeds at the same time? Well, think about when you are marching, and you have to do a column turn. Notice that the people on the outside of the formation have to take larger steps than those on the inside of the formation just to stay in an even row. The water is doing the same thing around turns (and interestingly, air does the same thing over the curved surface of a wing, with the faster-moving air above the wing creating a lower pressure zone that gives the wing lift). The faster water on the outside of the bend erodes the bank, while the slower moving water on the inside of the bend drops some of its sediments, making shallows and bars. The bend, then, is always moving. 
It is easy to see the deposition on the inside of the curves of this river.
Sometimes, these MEANDERS wind around in a horseshoe shape, creating tight turns. As the water continues to flow, it erodes away the neck of land sticking into the river bend (think about the turn, and the way rivers erode on the outside of a turn). This process slowly eats away at the neck of land. Then, perhaps during a flood, the river breaks its bank, cuts across the narrowed neck, and begins flowing directly into the next stretch, bypassing the wide meander. As the river follows this new path, it may begin dropping sediments along the mouth of the meander, eventually cutting it off from the main flow of the river and leaving behind what is known as an OXBOW LAKE. (You can watch a brief video using satellite imagery to show an oxbow lake form in just a few years time.)
What are the Major Rivers in North America?
There are many ways to interpret "major" rivers. One could consider the total length of the river, or the role it plays in transportation, or the size of the watershed, or the role in supplying water for agriculture or consumer use. If you look around, you will see many different takes on this question. According to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the fifteen longest rivers in the United States (not North America) in order are the Missouri River (2,540 miles), Mississippi River (2,340 miles), Yukon River (1,980 miles), Rio Grande River (1,900 miles), St. Lawrence River (1,900 miles), Arkansas River (1,460 miles), Colorado River (1,450 miles), Atchafalaya River (1,420 miles), Ohio River (1,310 miles), Red River (1,290 miles), Brazos River (1,280 miles), Columbia River (1,240 miles), Snake River (1,040 miles), Platte River (990 miles), and Pecos River (926 miles). The ten longest rivers in Canada (not counting the Yukon River, St. Lawrence River, Columbia River and even a tiny bit of the Mississippi that are in both Canada and the United States) are the Mackenzie River (1080 miles), Nelson River (1600 miles), Saskatchewan River (1205 miles), Peace River (1195 miles), Churchill River (1000 miles), South Saskatchewan River (865 miles), Fraser River (851 miles), North Saskatchewan River (800 miles), Ottawa River (790 miles), and Athabasca River (765 miles). The five longest rivers in Mexico (aside from the Rio Grande and Colorado that are shared with the United States) are the Usumacinta River (621 miles), Culiacan River (544 miles), Balsas River (479 miles), Lerma River (466 miles), and Grijalva River (373 miles). So, if we were to look at North America as a whole, the 15 longest rivers in order are the Mackenzie River (2635 miles), Missouri River (2,540 miles), Mississippi River (2,340 miles), Yukon River (1,980 miles), Rio Grande River (1,900 miles), St. Lawrence River (1,900 miles), Nelson River (1600 miles), Arkansas River (1,460 miles), Colorado River (1,450 miles), Atchafalaya River (1,420 miles), Ohio River (1,310 miles), Red River (1,290 miles), Brazos River (1,280 miles), Columbia River (1,240 miles), and Saskatchewan River (1205 miles). This, of course, is just a measurement of length. 
If we were to look at different features, we would get very different answers. If we were to look at average discharge, for example, the order changes to the Mississippi River [minus the Atchafalaya and Red River basin] (593,000 f3/s), St. Lawrence River [excluding the Great Lakes] (348,000 f3/s), Ohio River (281,000 f3/s), Columbia River (265,000 f3/s), Yukon River (225,000 f3/s), Missouri River (76,200 f3/s), Tennessee River (68,000 f3/s), Mobile River (67,200 f3/s), Kuskokwim River (67,000 f3/s), and Copper River (59,000 f3/s).
Canada's top rivers (aside from those that cross borders) by discharge rate are the Mackenzie River (340,000 f3/s), Fraser River (125,000 f3/s), Slave River (121,400 f3/s), Koksoak River (99,000 f3/s), Liard River (86,400 f3/s) and Nelson River (84,000 f3/s). Mexico's rivers fall far short of these numbers in average discharge rates. Another way to consider rivers is by their watersheds. The Mississippi (not counting the Red River Basin) has a drainage area of 1,150,000 square miles. Next come the Missouri River (529,000 square miles), St. Lawrence River (396,000 square miles), Rio Grande River (336,000 square miles), Yukon River (328,000 square miles), Columbia River (258 square miles), Colorado River (246,000 square miles), Ohio River (208 square miles), Arkansas River (161,000 square miles) and Snake River (108,000 square miles). For Canada (aside from shared rivers), the largest are the Mackenzie River (697,000 square miles), Nelson River (344,500 square miles), Slave River (238,000 square miles), Saskatchewan River (129,700 square miles) Peace River (116,800 square miles), Red River (100,000 square miles), Churchill River (108,600 square miles), Liard River (107,000 square miles), and Fraser River (90,000 square miles). Mexico's rivers (aside from those that share borders) again fall far short of these numbers. Sources for data include: United States Geological Society Environment and Climate Change Canada The Drainage Basins of the World’s Longest Rivers WorldAtlas Longest Rivers in Mexico The Canadian Encyclopedia Longest Rivers in Canada Numbering Streams
A river may have many tributaries flowing into it, and by counting the levels of tributaries, you can give rivers a particular ordinal number. This is useful in studying a river's geomorphology, or for comparing different rivers and their watersheds. While there are several systems, in general, they trace the different merges of tributaries into a final river to determine its relative ordinal number. The image below (click to enlarge) provides an example. 
And he showed me a pure river of water of life, clear as crystal, proceeding from the throne of God and of the Lamb. In the middle of its street, and on either side of the river, was the tree of life, which bore twelve fruits, each tree yielding its fruit every month. The leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations. And there shall be no more curse, but the throne of God and of the Lamb shall be in it, and His servants shall serve Him. They shall see His face, and His name shall be on their foreheads. There shall be no night there: They need no lamp nor light of the sun, for the Lord God gives them light. And they shall reign forever and ever. [Revelation 22:1-5] Rivers and Streams Honor
1. What distinguishes the rivers and streams biome from other aqueous biomes?
2. Define the following terms: Alluvial Fan, Alluvium, Brook, Continental Divide, Creek, Crick, Delta, Detritus, Estuary, Headwater, Mouth, Rapids, Riffle, Rill, Riparian, River, Rivulet, Silt, Stream, Tributary, Watershed, Whitewater. 3. Explain three differences in the water at the head and at the mouth of a river. Give examples of some different species found in each place. 4. Identify on a map the main rivers on your continent. Know at least 5 of their explorers. Read a story about one of the explorers. 5. What is an oxbow lake? Describe how it is formed. 6. List at least five fish that live in a river. 7. List at least five plants that live in a river or on a river’s edge. 8. List at least five birds that live on or near a river. 9. List at least five mammals that live in a river or at its edge. 10. Write a report or present orally the story of an introduced plant or animal species in this biome. Include where it came from, the problems it causes, and what steps are being taken to reduce/eliminate the damage. 11. Describe a species native to this biome, which is threatened, endangered or extinct. Include some contributing causes. 12. Sing a song about a river or stream. 13. Read about the “River of Life” mentioned in the bible. 14. Develop or read an object lesson about a river and tell it as pathfinder worship, children’s story, or other acceptable method of sharing approved by a Master Guide. 15. Do at least two of the following activities related to rivers and streams: a. Photograph or draw the organisms found in samples of water you collected from a stream. b. Walk along a stream and list as many plants and animals you observe. c. Visit a large waterfall or dam and explain what difficulty it presents for the wildlife. d. Pick up trash along a river or stream. e. Produce a 60 second commercial to inform an audience about something in this biome. Rivers and Streams - Advanced 1. Earn the Rivers and Streams honor. 2. Spend at least one day in a river or stream habitat. Arrange for some service project to participate in (clean up, trail making, helping others learn about this specific habitat). 3. Write a report about the following things (including maps, photographs or drawings may help): a. What river or stream did you visit? b. When did you visit? c. What did you do there? d. New information you learned about this type of habitat you beyond what was learned in the basic honor. e. Information about the specific river or stream you visited. f. Describe the service project you did (be specific). g. What did you learn about yourself while doing the service project? h. What did you learn about this habitat while doing this service project? On the last day, that great day of the feast, Jesus stood and cried out, saying, “If anyone thirsts, let him come to Me and drink. He who believes in Me, as the Scripture has said, out of his heart will flow rivers of living water.” But this He spoke concerning the Spirit, whom those believing in Him would receive; for the Holy Spirit was not yet given, because Jesus was not yet glorified. [John 7:37-39] |
River Ecology - Life in the Riparian Zon
A green heron waits patiently for its next meal.
Rivers are not only about the water. They are teeming with life, both in the water and along the banks. The habitat along rivers is called the RIPARIAN zone, which serves to manage runoff, filters out pollutants, and provides habitats for numerous plant and animal communities. Riparian areas are complex ecosystems, ever changing, ever moving. Certain plants are found almost exclusively in and around rivers, streams and creeks, and even when water is not flowing may indicate a seasonal or temporarily dry riverbed. In Central Texas, for example, if you see a Bald Cypress on the horizon, you can be fairly confident it is near a watercourse. Buttonbush and American Sycamore are also common indicators of nearby water.
If we float down a Central Texas river or creek, what may we see? Peer into the water, and you may see some Largemouth Bass near a snag, or a Longer Sunfish protecting its carefully excavated underwater nest. In some of our backwaters, you may see Longnose or Spotted Gar snapping at the surface. Or look in the smaller creeks for the colorful Orangethroat Darter or Sailfin Molly. Catfish, Carp, and various Minnows also abound. Floating near the surface, or sunning on a log are Red Ear Sliders, Texas Cooters, and Spiny Softshell turtles. Swimming near the banks you may see the non-venomous Plain-Bellied and Diamondback Watersnakes, or even a Red-Striped Ribbonsnake taking a shortcut across a creek. Zipping above the water are colorful Dragonflies and Damselflies, while Water Skimmers “skate” across the surface, and even the occasional Fishing Spider scoots along the water surface.
Along the edge of the stream, you may see a green heron waiting patiently to snag a fish or dragonfly, a double-crested cormorant drying its oil-less wings, or see an osprey or kingfisher swoop down and dive into the water to catch dinner. The cliff swallows are likely skimming the water surface, or fluttering along the bank collecting mud for their nests, while larger Egrets and Herons may wade in the shallows in search of their dinner.
Look at the bank and you are likely to see the tracks of Raccoons and White-Tail Deer, common visitors to the creekside. Rock Squirrels may leap nimbly along the eroded cliff edges above the creek, while fox squirrels hop through the trees above the waters’ edge. If you are in the right place, you may see a River Otter or a Beaver. At night, watch for colonies of Mexican Free-Tail Bats skimming above the water, feasting upon mosquitos and other flying insects.
As you float down the river, the Bald Cypress may provide some shade, its knees jutting out of the water. American Sycamores stand tall along the creekside, their patchwork bark looking like some sort of simple camouflage pattern. Horsetails, Rushes and Sedges line the water edges, Cattails stand in clumps, Water Lillies and Lotus pads float on the surface, their flowers adding color to the riverscape. The shoreline is blanketed in the humorously-named Frogfruit, a small brown and white flower.
In some areas Ferns hang low, in others the damp rocks are covered in Liverworts. In some areas, the Dwarf Palmetto grows along the banks, its large, fan-like leaves appearing a bit out of place among the rest of our Central Texas flora. Look closely at this abundance of life - see how different plants or animals prefer to be closer or further from the water, how they interact with one another. See how the whole Riparian Zone works - not in some static simplicity, but in a splendid complexity.
Threatened, Endangered, Introduced, and Invasive
Rivers, like other habitats, are susceptible to changes that can threaten or endanger species, as well as to the risks associated with introducing non-native species. Below are some river species at risk, as well as some introduced invasives. You can read many accounts at the Texas Parks and Wildlife service’s information on rare, threatened and endangered species. At risk (or worse): Barton Springs Salamander (Eurycea sosorum): A federally-listed endangered species, the Barton Springs Salamander is only known to live in fresh spring waters of Barton Springs in Austin, Texas. The salamander is small, just 2.5 inches long, is grey or pinkish with dark and light mottling, has very tiny eyes, and has red external gills. The salamander is endangered due to its very small habitat, and to pollution of the waters of the aquifer and springs. The City of Austin regularly monitors the Barton Springs Salamander population, and is taking active efforts to protect its habitat and waters, although this does not mean stopping swimming in Barton Springs Pool. 
Barton Springs Salamander (Eurycea sosorum)
Blotched Gambusia (Gambusia senilis): The Blotched Gambusia (called the guayacon del Bravo in Mexico) is a small live-bearing fish with a dark lateral stripe and crescent markings. Although still relatively abundant in Mexico, they are considered extirpated (all killed or removed) from their previous habitat in the Devils River in southern Texas, due to the construction of the Amistad Reservoir. In Texas, the Blotched Gambusia is listed as a threatened species, while globally the IUCN considers them a Near Threatened species.
Texas Fatmucket (Lampsilis bracteata): The Texas Fatmucket is a freshwater muscle that was once found throughout much of the upper Colorado River and its tributaries, but is now restricted to a few isolated populations. It is a relatively large freshwater muscle, reaching sizes of nearly 4 inches in length. The Texas Fatmucket is elongated, usually a greenish-yellow or tan and marked with dark brown wavy lines. Freshwater muscles have a specialized larval stage called a glochidia, which must attach to a specific host fish’s gills or fins, living the first stage of their life as a parasite. They are threatened due to habitat depletion and changes in fish populations. It is currently a candidate species for listing as threatened or endangered.
Introduced and Invasive: There are many ways invasive species can find their way into our waterways. They may have been imported intentionally for food, for control of other organisms, for game or for display. They may have slipped past barriers from research facilities, or been released by individuals from fishtanks or for food. One of the challenges of non-native introduced or invasive species is that they often have no local predator, and thus can spread rapidly and outcompete the natives. Management may include introduction of other non-native species (which can cause another cycle of problems), by trying to catch, poison, electrocute, or other means of killing them. The best way to control invasives is prevention - do not release non-native species into the wild, and plant local species in your landscapes. NPR on top 10 invasive species in Texas TexasInvasives.org TPWD on exotic and invasive species in Texas waters Water Hyacinth (Eichhoria crassipes): Water Hyacinth is a floating plant with a large stalk of purplish flowers, somewhat resembling a hyacinth. The leaves are rounded or oval, with a slight bend in them, and the base of leaves are inflated, to allow the plant to float. A native of South America, the Water hyacinth can grow and spread very quickly, overtaking a pond, lake or even river. Water Hyacinth is often used as an ornamental in small ponds, and can from there escape into the wild. Management is primarily through removal, or the selective use of herbicides.
Asian Clam (Corbicula fluminea): The Asian Clam is a small bivalve, with a yellowish or brownish shell marked by concentric ridges. They are now found in many of the river systems in Texas. Although they do not spread rapidly, and are now consumed by some native fish and crustaceans, the Asian Clam is considered a pest species, potentially transmitting foreign parasites to local waters, and fouling the pipes of power plants. Zebra (Dreissena polymorpha) and Quagga (Dreissena rostriformis bugensis) Mussels: Triangular in shape, these imported mussels grow quickly, rapidly filtering out the nutrients from infested water bodies and clogging pipes and drains. They are frequently transported by boats between lakes and rivers, so it is important to clean boats thoroughly between uses to avoid spreading these invasive mussels.
Nutria (Myocastor coypus): A large, brown, aquatic rodent with a nearly naked tail, Nutria were introduced to the United States from South America in the late 1800s for their fur and to graze vegetation. Nutria can be nearly as large as beavers, and larger than native muskrats (though we do not have the latter in Central Texas). They can undermine shorelines due to their burrowing, and may eat through cultivated crops. Although Nutria do chew the bark of trees, and may completely girdle trees, they do not chew through the trunks, as beavers do.
Bighead Carp: (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis): A native of China, Bighead Carp can grow to nearly 100 pounds. They feed primarily on zooplankton and phytoplankton, are voracious eaters, and may out compete native fish for food. The eyes are located near the bottom of the head. Bighead Carp, like several other species of Asian Carp, are spreading throughout the United States, and there are currently efforts underway to try to prevent their spread into the great Lakes.
River Explorers
Some rivers have well known explorers who traveled much of the river. Others saw several different explorers slowly unfolding different sections. Below are just a few of the explorers of major rivers in North America, as well as a few links to get you started in learning more information about them. Also, go to the library. There are numerous books on explorers or on these individuals. St. Lawrence River - Jacques Cartier (1491-1557) Leading three official expeditions to North America for France in 1534, 1535 and 1541, Cartier explored the St. Lawrence River as far south as modern day Montreal. Cartier also gave Canada its name, drawing from the local Iroquois dialect.
Missouri River (and the Snake River and Columbia River) - Meriwether Lewis (1774-1809) and William Clark (1770-1838) Lewis and Clark explored much of the American northwest, beginning in St. Louis 1804 and heading up the Missouri River, crossing overland to the Snake River, down to the Columbia and the Pacific coast. They completed their trek in 1806.
Colorado River - John Wesley Powell (1834-1902) Powell, a one-armed explorer, traveled twice down the Colorado River, once in 1869 and again in 1871. During his life, Powell also climbed Pikes Peak with his wife (the first woman to climb the mountain), created a dictionary of the Ute language, and helped establish both the United States Geological Survey and the National Geographic Society. PBS has a a website that goes along with a program on Powell and his 1869 trip down the Colorado River and through the Grand Canyon: The USGS has a page dedicated to the 150th anniversary of Powell’s exploration Mississippi River (And parts of the Arkansas River) - Zebulon Pike (1779-1813) Pike, who never actually succeeded in scaling his eponymous Peak in Colorado, explored the Upper Mississippi River in 1805-06, followed by an expedition designed to explore the Arkansas and Red Rivers, though he only accessed parts of the Arkansas before being detained by the Spanish.
Yukon River - Robert Campbell (1808-1894) Campbell was a fur trader who explored the Pelly and Yukon Rivers in the 1840s and 1850s. Although Russian fir traders had explored much of the Yukon from the coast eastward, Campbell was the first white man to explore it in the other direction.
Ohio River and Mississippi River - Rene Robert Cavelier Sieur de La Salle (1643-1687) La Salle explored the lower Mississippi in 1682, claiming all of the Mississippi Basin for France, and naming it La Louisiane (later modified to Louisiana). La Salle had earlier explored portions of the Ohio River while seeking the elusive maritime route to the Far East. Here in Texas, he is perhaps even better known for his unfortunate navigational error that brought him to Texas instead of the mouth of the Mississippi.
Usumacinta - Teobert Maler (1842-1917) Maler, a German explorer and ethnographer, studied the Mayan civilizations and ruins in the Usumacinta River Valle in Mexico and Guatemala in the 1880s and 1890s (though he had done some previous explorations in Mexico prior to that time).
Platte River - John C. Fremont (1813-1890) Although not one of our major rivers, I include Fremont’s 1842 exploration of the Platte River Valley because every Pathfinder should be familiar with his name. It was stories about Fremont, nicknamed “The Pathfinder” after James Fenimore Cooper’s character Natty Bumppo, that A.W. Spaulding told tales of around the campfires at summer camps in California in the late 1920s. The name soon became attached to the camps, to various JMV societies, and ultimately to the worldwide Pathfinder organization.
There are several other explorers you may want to read about. Mackenzie River and Peace River - Sir Alexander Mackenzie (1764-1820) Fraser River - Simon Fraser (1776-1862) Columbia River - William Broughton (1762-1821)
Yukon River - John Bell (1796-1868)
Red River and Arkansas River - Thomas Freeman (? - 1821), Richard Sparks and Peter Custis (1781-1842)
Red River, Mississippi River, Sulphur River - Jean Baptiste Benard de La Harpe (1683-1785) |
All images by R. Baker unless otherwise noted